Sexual Behavior And Sexual Identity Health And Social Care Essay

HIV is no longer entirely stigmatising the â€Å" cheery white male. † In recent old ages, the menace has spread to more diverse populations, including adult females who have sex with adult females ( WSWs ) practising multiple sexual behaviours, while presuming a assortment of sexual individualities. Yet, the information, intercessions and research available today continue providing to the original face of this deathly disease. Despite the turning organic structure of research, WSWs remain â€Å" unseeable † to authorities research workers, private wellness attention suppliers and community wellness organisations. Therefore where services for WSW are readily available, suppliers frequently fail to acknowledge the differentiation between sexual behaviour and sexual individuality, a misconception merely farther reinforced by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention ( CDC ) as it continues to categorise adult females infected by female-to-female transmittal harmonizing to past sexual and drug behaviours. In add-on to a reasonably common belief that WSWs are immune to HIV, this community is frequently dismissed upon unwraping their sexual individuality for a figure of grounds. As noted by Diamond, there is an â€Å" premise among scientists and laypeople alike that reliable sexual orientation develops early and is consistent through one ‘s life. † This writer goes on to farther stress that, â€Å" what is reliable is what is stable. † The subjective manner in which many position sexual individuality has been a primary subscriber to the huge array of steps available to research workers for measuring hazardous behaviours with respect to sexual orientation. Ultimately, this dismissive, inattentive and even mocking respect for adult females who have sex with adult females has put an already vulnerable and turning part of the United State ‘s population at even greater hazard for HIV every bit good as STI ‘s ( sexually transmitted infections ) . From the supplier ‘s point of view, issues faced by members of this sexual wellness minority seeking information and resources are slightly associated with those issues faced by organisations fighting to function specific patronage. Within the metropolis of Chicago, those suppliers turn toing the sexual wellness demands of WSW are few and far between. For the few in being, publicity of services to the intended demographic can be disputing for several grounds: 1 ) presuming exchangeability of sexual orientation ( or ignoring the demand for categorical sexual wellness services ) can skew the best agencies for measuring plan efficaciousness ; at the same clip 2 ) if agencies for finding a participant ‘s sexual orientation are flatly specific, one misclassification can ensue in inefficiency or mis-direction of resources toward those with lesser demand off from those with greater demand. Findingss from recent surveies underline the danger in presuming excessively much about mark groups and their high/low-risk sexual patterns. Though research may uncover some groups to be more vulnerable for certain diseases than others, this statistical difference by no agency justifies the gross instability in focal point, funding and/or support.RESEARCH Question:What sexual wellness services are available for WSW ( adult females who have sex with adult females ) within the metropolis of Chicago and how are these service organisations aiming patronages in footings of turn toing the intersection of sexual behaviour and individuality?Hypothesis:With an highly limited figure of suppliers active in Chicago, few resources are available for WSW. If an organisation provides services for WSW, so they most likely do so on the footing of sexual individuality accordingly restricting their chance to turn to the single client ‘s potentially bad sexual behaviour.LITERATURE REVIEW:Numerous s urveies suggest that adult females who have sex with adult females are at low hazard for HIV and the subsequent famine of dedicated HIV/STI bar services for this community seems to reenforce these sentiments. Yet, rates of infection for HIV/STIs amongst WSW are on the rise and activist alliances comprised of adult females populating positively state broad are get downing to talk out. The battle to supply sexual wellness services for a population that has been mostly overlooked by the medical community now demands national attending. Reasons for the current deficiency of information and resources, every bit good as challenges faced by active service suppliers are debated and analyzed severally in the literature reviewed. There are a figure of issues that contribute to the wellness disparities faced by WSW. For illustration, the Women ‘s Health Initiative, a US sample of 96,000 older adult females, found that tribades and bisexual adult females were significantly more likely to be uninsured compared to heterosexual adult females ( 10, 12 and 7 % severally ) ( Valanis et al. , 2000 ) . The deficiency of insured WSW may be, harmonizing to Arend, due to homophobia on the portion of the physicians and nurses. Patient studies of homophobia in the medical universe are seting WSW at an even greater hazard: â€Å" since attention suppliers may non further swearing relationships with in which their patients could experience comfy unwraping their sexual individuality and behaviour. † It must be noted that a client can non seek wellness services that do non be, or she is less willing to make so if she has either experienced stigma or anticipates a stigmatizing environment ( Dean et al. , 2000 ; Meye r & A ; Northridge, 2007 ) . Although the CDC considers female-to-female HIV transmittal a â€Å" rare happening, † instance studies every bit good as some surveies and a smattering of publications point out that non merely are vaginal fluids and catamenial blood potentially infective, but rates of infection amongst adult females who have sex with adult females are presently on the rise ( survey by lady at conference, CDC, Arend ) * . In the article, â€Å" HIV Testing Among Lesbian Womans: Social Context and Subjective Meanings, † Dolan and Davis utilised studies, focal point groups and in-depth interviews to depict HIV proving experiences among a sample of 162 sapphic adult females populating in a big southeasterly US metropolis ( Dolan & A ; Davis 2008, JOHNSON ) . Eighty per centum of the sample had tested at least one time, with more than 25 % holding tested five or more times. Most of the adult females tested voluntarily and despite the widely promoted misconception that WSWs are at low hazar d for HIV, the respondent ‘s perceptual experience of hazard was noted as the â€Å" most common ground for proving. † However, the CDC continues to categorise adult females infected by female-to-female transmittal merely harmonizing to their old sexual and drug behaviours, thereby disregarding an full community and perpetuating the â€Å" sapphic unsusceptibility † stereotype. For old ages, Aids has been profiled as a â€Å" cheery white male ‘s † disease. Merely in the past decennary have wellness instruction and diverseness preparation plans sought to counter what has been referred to as ‘the de-gaying of AIDS † ( Flowers, 2001 ) and alternatively advanced the claim that AIDS is a ‘democratic ‘ or ‘equal chance ‘ virus. Unfortunately, this push to reprogram an inaccurate image has failed in two facets: First of all, developing manuals intended to battle the impression that ‘AIDS is a cheery disease ‘ overpoweringly turn readers ‘ attending off from work forces who have sex with work forces ( MSM ) to refocus it upon the heterosexual community. Mentioning statistics such as â€Å" The World Health Organization says 75 % of people with AIDS were infected through heterosexual sex † is helpful for battling the purely cheery male association, but at what point should the public consider hazards associated with adult females who have sex with adult females? Second, in add-on to overlooking a vulnerable demographic, the reprogramming of AIDS instruction has a inclination to entirely categorise gender, ensuing in the marginalisation of WSWs. Harmonizing to Bourne et al. , efforts at making more politically right intercession plans have pushed many plans back to educating through a biomedical lens: â€Å" minimising the hazard of bodily unstable exchange and set uping physical barriers between spouses. † One article highlights how â€Å" this point of view may be deficient when sing the emotionally charged sphere of sexual behaviour, which is, by its really nature, societal. † Intervention plans based on a biomedical position on safe sex tend to turn to intervention/education demands in a categorical, diagnostic mode. Bourne and Robson ‘s analysis of the biomedical attack to learning â€Å" safe sex † reveals how wellness publicity schemes which fail to take history of the complexnesss of lived experience are, as a consequence, mostly ignored by the mark population as being incompatible with their demands. Properly turn toing the demands of a peculiar sexual minority group ever draws attending to a cardinal, on-going argument in gender and wellness. The dissension over which issue to turn to first, behaviour or individuality, is seeable throughout the literature reviewed. Diamond notes, there is an â€Å" premise among scientists and laypeople alike that reliable sexual orientation develops early and is consistent through one ‘s life † ( 2009:52 ) . What is reliable is what is stable. â€Å" So the familiar battlefields are drawn: fixed=biological= deserving of credence and protection, whereas variable=chosen=fair game for stigma and favoritism † ( Diamond 2009:246 ) . * Some writers, nevertheless, argue that sexual orientation is non one thing. Rather, it has many constituents, including behaviour, individuality and desire. For some, behaviour may be a defining characteristic of their sexual orientation, while for others desire may be the most of import ( Tabatabai ) * . Sexual behaviour is less of import for adult females as they consider their sexual orientation ( Peplau and Garnets 2000 ) . Some experts conclude that prosecuting in sexual behaviour with a member of the same gender is non a requirement for placing in a peculiar manner and a recent Indiana University survey supports this theory. The 2010 study of Thirty showed that while X % of adult females surveyed identified as heterosexual, XXX had engaged in same sex sexual behaviours. Numerous articles highlighted hazards associated with sexual wellness service suppliers turn toing sexual individuality entirely, but the ways in which the faculty member and medical community approach sexual behaviour and designation remain subjective, thereby perpetuating wellness disparities amongst WSW. When revelation becomes a battle, so does efficaciously providing to the client ‘s yesteryear, present, or possible bad sexual behaviours. So, at the supplier degree, after an organisation decides whether to offer intercession scheduling directed at adult females who have sex with adult females, the best theoretical account for carry oning client outreach and best methods for finding proper individualized attention take centre phase. * While some adult females are really unfastened about both their diseases and sexual individuality, others are loath to discourse these issues due to frights of culturally-based stigmas against homosexualism and HIV, homophobia and maltreatment signifier medical professionals and disaffection from household members and larger communities. * Thus, a supplier motivated to make more for WSW wellness can make little with deficient support, inaccurate information or a limited outreach theoretical account. Harmonizing to a 2008 auxiliary issue within the Journal of Homosexuality, the usage of inclusive signifiers, linguistic communications and treatments that do non presume the person ‘s individuality, orientation, behaviour and relationship position are important for easing optimum bringing of attention and services. * Intake signifiers are, therefore, the first and sometimes last chance a supplier has to link with their client. Research is limited and what is available is overpoweringly theoretical. A quantitative appraisal of adult females ‘s sexual individuality and how it aligns with their behaviour is good for efficaciously patterning intercession plans. A qualitative analysis and cross-organizational appraisal of organisations presently supplying services in the Chicago country is good for finding outreach efficaciousness. Ratess of infection amongst WSW are quickly on the rise, yet the research community has been slow to react. This survey aims to pull attending to a sexual minority that is frequently overlooked by all three social sectors and foregrounding multiple barriers toward having equal attention is the first measure in bettering sexual wellness service efficaciousness for WSW.RESEARCH DESIGN:Both quantitative and qualitative methods will be utilized in this three-part multi-strategy research procedure: A quantitative analysis and rating of bing informations from a 2009 NYC Community Hea lth Survey ( CHS ) will turn to the intersection of sexual behaviours and individuality. From 2002 to 2008, 10,000 grownups aged 18 and supra participated in the cross-sectional study. The CHS, based on the National Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System ( BRFSS ) and conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, provides informations on a sample population comparable to Chicago. The quantitative part is important in that it will showcase a statistical form in the intersection of sexual behaviour with sexual individuality. This statistical form will reenforce the demand for qualitative appraisal of bing service organisations and explorative research on the mode in which an organisation determines client service. Three bing organisations functioning WSW ( adult females who have sex with adult females ) within the metropolis of Chicago ( Planned Parenthood of Illinois, Howard Brown Health Center ‘s Lesbian Community Care Project, and Chicago Women ‘s Health Center ) will be evaluated for a bipartite qualitative part. Interviews with decision makers heading each organisation and studies with staff responsible for personally interacting with plan attendants will supply qualitative informations in this exploratory and explanatory survey. The interview responses and study consequences will so be evaluated in concurrence with an analysis of each organisation ‘s intake signifier ( a standard paper signifier used for finding new client demands ) . Examination of said signifier will function to expose the mode in which each organisation categorizes and later â€Å" dainties † their clients. Textual analysis and qualitative in-depth observation of all three organisations will find whether WSW sexual wellness services are based upon the client ‘s sexual behaviour or the sexual individuality they declared upon consumption. Pairing the qualitative ratings with the quantitative research findings from a comparable population provides greater apprehension of the service demands within Chicago, the best methods for outreach and the issues that potentially arise from these current outreach methods.

The Effect Of Motivation, Values And Involvement Of The Buyers In The Market

In each and every market the buyers are unpredictable and therefore strategic marketing should be in a way that the marketers influence the decisions made by the buyers. Motivation, values and involvement of the buyers plays a very important role in influencing the decision of the buyers. For a business organization to be unique from other competitors in the industry it needs to form a strong relationship with the current buyers and the potential buyers.Considering the values of the buyers, involving them in the decision making process and motivating them accordingly are some of the ways that businesses can use to influence the behavior of the buyers. There is need to research on the motivation, value and involvement of the buyer because all of the successful sales are made not because of the excellence of the products being marketed but because the marketers either consciously or unconsciously have found a human reason to why their products should sell. The marketers need to underst and the role of motivation, values and involvement of the buyers so as to have a successful sale.Businesses that misunderstand the above role end up making wrong decisions concerning the behavior of the buyer and hence they incur significant losses. Research also needs to be carried out to show the differences in the levels of motivation and involvement between buyers who are purchasing for business reasons and those who are purchasing for personal reasons. Understanding the values, motivation and the involvement of the buyers also helps businesses retain their customers and hence have a stable market and a competitive advantage in the market.Due to the above factors which clearly show the importance of the motivation, values and involvement of the buyers there is need to carry out a research so as to provide more information to businesses on this topic. LITERATURE REVIEW In a business context the behavior of the consumers is referred to as the study of the reason why consumers purc hase specific items during a certain period in a certain place. In trying to understand the concept of consumer behavior a lot of research has looked at it from a social, psychology and economics view.A lot of research has been carried to evaluate the behavior of the consumers but most of the research is carried out on groups of the consumers and fails to investigate the behavior of a single consumer without the influence of the other consumers in the market. Most of the research that has been carried out studies the characteristics of consumers in groups so as to understand the needs and preferences of a certain group of consumers (Solomon et al: 121-135). This research study will study the consumers individually to understand personal needs and preferences of consumers.Studies have also been carried out to investigate the influence consumers get from their friends, families and the society as a whole. Consumer behavior also tries to study the consumer retention, the relationship o f the consumers and the business and also the values of the consumers. Businesses need to consider the motivation of the buyers in order to improve their sales. There are two types of motivations of the buyers: psychological motivation and physiological motivation (Hauftvet et al: 889).Consumer behavior studies are carried out to determine how the consumers use and dispose the product as well as to understand how the products are purchased. Marketers need to understand the use of the products they deal with because this affects how a product is positioned in the market and how the marketers can influence the consumption of the product. Due to the fact that environmental problems arise as a result of disposal of the products purchased by the consumers it is necessary to study the disposal of products as this affects the motivation of the buyers towards a certain product.The research will extend previous studies in that it will look at the effect of consumer behavior on the society fo r example aggressive marketing of foods rich in high foods has serious effects on the health of the population (Henry, 2004: 256-262). In the early 1900’s Dither carried out a qualitative market research and suggested that the motives of the consumers are initiated by concealed unconscious needs. However, most of the theories developed by Ditcher on consumer motivations have been disregarded in the modern marketing strategies (as cited in Ziems, 2004: 211).Ditcher identified five stages involved in the motivation process as underlying need, drive, desire, goal and behavior. Consumer involvement is the increased state of awareness that tends to motivate consumers to think about a product and seek information regarding the product before they buy it. High levels of involvement of the buyers have been seen to increase the attention of the buyers towards certain products and also the consumers place greater importance on the sources of the information relating to the products.Thi s research will also investigate whether there is more to motivating the consumers rather than unaware desires or wants of the consumers. Hein, 2006 noted that the only best way to hook a buyer into buying a certain product is touching the buyers emotionally (Hein, 2006: 42). HYPOTHESES The level of motivation of the buyers affects the competitive advantage of the business. The value of buyers on a certain product affects the sales of the product. High levels of involvement of the buyers increase the information the buyers have regarding the product.RESEARCH METHODS In selection of the research methods to be used in this research, time available for the research, the cost of the research and access to the information were the factors that will be put into consideration. For the successful completion of the study it will be necessary to collect data from various sources to enable the business produce items that the buyers want and not what the business thinks the buyers want. Both pr imary and secondary methods of research will be used in this study.Secondary research will involve making use of information that has been collected in previous studies. Primary data collection methods will also be used in this research. The methods used will include mail questionnaires, use of focus groups, phone surveys and direct observations. The research will focus more on the data collected through surveys because surveys produce more specific information regarding the buyers. The surveys will have open ended questions as well as close ended questions.Due to the fact that mail surveys are generally inexpensive they will be preferred in this research to cut down the cost of the research. MEASUREMENT APPROACH Collection of the data in this study will commence by informing the expected respondents of the need to carry out the research and how their responses will be treated during the research. The expected respondents will then be sent a copy of the questionnaire through mail. S o as to minimize the chances of unanswered questionnaires the researcher will take a sample of the respondents from a group of the consumers.The sample will consist of people of all races, ethnic group and age. Follow ups will then be done through the phone to ensure that the respondents have received the questionnaires and they are willing to respond to the questionnaires. Observations will then be made to understand the level of involvement of the respondents and how this affects the market of the product. After the questionnaires have been completed by the respondents the researcher will then collect all the questionnaires and analyze the data acquired.Analysis of the data will be carried out by use of SPSS and then graphs and charts will be derived from the data to present the data in a more clear way. The researcher will then collect secondary information from previous studies that have been carried out. The secondary information combined with the primary information will then be used to show how the values, motivation and the involvement of the buyers affect the market of the product. Statistical analysis will also be carried out on the data collected to test for validity and reliability of the data.DISCUSSION For the successful completion of this research contributions will be drawn from earlier researchers in the area. The marketers will also be expected to participate in the research in that they will give experiences on how the values, motivation and involvement of the consumers have affected the marketing of their products. One of the major difficulties expected during the research is unwilling respondents. This will result to unanswered questionnaires hence gaps in the expected data.An error may occur in the observation method of collecting information, this happens when the researcher observes the wrong behaviors of the sampled population. There will be need for further research in this area to clearly identify the measures that business organizat ions should take to ensure that the buyers are more involved in the business activities. WORD COUNT: 1, 480 WORK CITED Haugtvedt P. Curtis, Paul Herr and Frank R. Kardes, (2008), Handbook of consumer psychology, Illustrated Edition, New York, CRC Press Hein, K. (2006, October 2). Inside the Mind of the Marketer.Brandweek, 47(36), 16-21. Retrieved July 22, 2009, from the Academic Search Complete database Henry Assael, (2004), consumer behavior: a strategic approach, illustrated Edition, Boston, New York, Houghton Mifflin Publishers Solomon R Michael, Gary J. Bamossy, Soren Askegaard, (2001), Consumer behavior: A European perspective, Second Edition, New York, Prentice Hall Publishers. Ziems, D. (2004, June). The Morphological Approach for Unconscious Consumer Motivation Research. Journal of Advertising Research, 44(2), 210-215. Retrieved July 22, 2009 from EJC database

1.Define international business imperative and highlight the impact…

1.Define international business imperative and highlight the impact It means doing business activities or trade with one or more than different countries outside the country boundary or geographical area. It means commercial private transaction and government organization in term of sales investment and logistics. International business lead different parties for their own motives either for profit or any political reason to under take all business activities including import and export crossing borders in goods, services and economical resources Which consists capital, skills and social political reasons. International trade has a vital role to seek for materials and parts also for international opportunities for the demand of several thing and economic resources which consists of capital, skills, people to give responsibilities for the production of physical goods. Now a days international economy business has some other importance like to enhance to political relationship with other countries like EEC. Although the world wide market has explained greatly to some extent which made the possible with other countries of the world due to the globalize economy of the world. Business transaction like finance, banking, insurance, these are the main keys sectors for varies countries where international has liked with other countries to trade on permanent basis. Forty years ago international trade was very difficult between the countries by the reasons of political, communication, and social and cultural restrictions. Creation of European Economic Community (EEC) it tried to open trade barrier between the twenty three countries who participate actively in economy growth of the EEC and free trade among the members of EU. United Kingdome as the member of the EU has developed business with several countries like China, India, Sri lanka only few shortlist to WU where there is no barrier in the members. UK imports and exports the goods and services from other countries which are not the members of the EEC. International organization is ve ry important for the local economy. We have multinational enterprises where the customers have a lot of varieties of their own choice. Competition on various channel of production have modern approach to meet the requirements in more than one country. We have a number of foreign businesses throughout the countries such as, McDonald, Kentuky, and Nado. We have a range of foreign fast food business in different sectors. International business is impartial and has give the consumers more choice to get access of multiple goods. On the other hand some counties have limited international business because of government restriction to protect the home country’s market to protect job of the citizen. Sometimes home business is disappeared due to the arrival of foreign investors. Thus protection of local business is important to secure jobs an investment political measures are essential to enhance the production of the local industry. 2. Explain what strategic Alliances. Meaning of stra tegic Alliance. Discuss the potential benefits of strategic Alliances. Advantages and disadvantages. A strategic alliance is acquiring to or more parties into a relationship to meet a business need. It might be with in the local market or at international level. Distribute different resources. The partners get both support and collaboration. This organization is proved to be beneficial.

Messiah Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Messiah - Essay Example There is also the idea of a new Moses found in Deuteronomy, a relatively early work. In Deuteronomy 18 v 15 he tells the Israelites â€Å"The Lord your God will raise up for you a prophet like me from among your brothers. You must listen to him.’ Earlier in the scriptures , as far as the arrangement of the Hebrew scriptures is concerned, we have the idea of the messiah as a saviour in Genesis 3 v 15 , where God tells the serpent that the messiah will be a human. In Psalm 2 v 7 we are told however that he will be the Son of God. Christians believe that these apparently ideas were reconciled in the person of Jesus of Nazereth, Jesus Christ, as shown in passages such as Matthew 3 v 17 when God himself declares â€Å"This is my son† a fact declared even by unclean spirits ( Mark 3 v 11) when they cry out to Jesus â€Å"You are the Son of God.† There was also the idea that this messiah would be a sacrifice for the sins of the people, a sacrificial lamb, as in Isaiah 53 v 7. John the Baptist echoes this when he points out Jesus to the crowds near the Jordon â€Å"Look the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world.† ( John 1 v 29, Bible , N.I.V.). Right at the beginning of Jesus’ earthly ministry we read (John 1 v 41, New International Version) :- The first thing Andrew did was to find his brother Simon and tell him, â€Å"We have found the Messiah† (That is the Christ). Andrew is referring to a long cherished hope for a Messiah, often, but not always thought of as a king in the line of David. Matthew (1 v 1 ) gives the genealogy of Jesus, whom he calls the Christ, and this is traced back through David. As we have already considered there were a number of ideas at the time in... The paper describes some ideas of "messiah" that lived and live nowadays and different points of view by various nations. The idea of a saviour who was also a king is clearly shown in Isaiah, which begins â€Å"See, a king will reign in righteousness and rulers will rule with justice.† So the idea of a restored kingship was strongly linked with the restoration of the nation. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church the Spirit of God was at work preparing for the coming of the promised Messiah, during the time covered by the Old Testament period. This it says means that when the church reads the Old Testament Scriptures it should search through it to see what the Spirit is telling us about Christ, who will be â€Å"The consolation of Israel† and the â€Å"Redemption of Jerusalem†.It is believed that these ideas are based upon passages such as Isaiah â€Å"The Lord comforts his people and will have compassion on his afflicted ones.† Isaiah describes the kind of person this messiah would be, one with the Spirit of the Lord resting upon him. Jesus would later echo this when he stated â€Å"The Spirit of the Lord God is upon me†. It is claimed that God speaks in â€Å"the language of promise†. Early Christians see him as priest. This idea is perpetuated in Catholic thought and practice in the idea of the priests as being ‘in persona Christi’. This is said to mean that at ordination, in some mystical way, an ordinary person becomes empowered to do what Christ did , that is to change ordinary bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ.

Motivation and Leadership Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Motivation and Leadership - Assignment Example It is therefore essential to motivate these employees regardless of their stay period in the organization. This is necessary in building a positive image of the company in the eyes of the workers and the society at large which can enhance smooth renewal of their contract when the need arises. Use of temporary workers There are times when temporary workers prove to be valuable to an organization and certain times when it is inappropriate to use them. It is appropriate to use them when the company needs to reduce its operational costs. This is because permanent workers require things such as security and many benefits in order to sustain them. This is justified from the case study where the Boeing Company has reduced its dependence on permanent staff through making of new hires abroad. Another time when the use of temporary workers is appropriate is when one is working on short-term projects, this is necessary for it enables those people who are experts in a certain area to handle situ ations that they are best suited in. This is evident form the case of Microsoft that says that its contingent employees fluctuate depending on the project that they are working on. They also note that temporary workers are experts in what they do and they complete projects within a short period of time. It is appropriate to use temporary employees on companies that work in cyclical industries. This is because they offer a range of various services. The services can be provided by temporary employees who have a wide range of various skills and hence can fit in that nature of the industry. This is evident from the case study where it states that temps are appealing to those companies in cyclical industries. On the other hand, there exists various times that are deemed to be inappropriate to use temporary employees. It is inappropriate to use them in order to maintain permanent employees when it comes to layoffs. This is a strategy that was used by Boeing Company. It is also inappropri ate to use them when one wants to build a company reputation. This is because temporary workers who come and go cannot be able to build a good image. A program for employee motivation The program that will be put in place to motivate the temporary employees will be the temporary workers incentive and welfare program. This is a program that will oversee that the situation of the workplace employees is improved and they are given incentives to motivate them. It comprises of the element of incentives and welfare. The incentives will be in terms of providing good pay, benefits such as health while the welfare is concerned with good working environment and responsibility. The program will also oversee that the temporary workers are given a conducive working environment similar to the permanent employees. It will also entail informing the employees effectively concerning the organization and also integrating them to the organization. This in turn creates social ties among workers which wi ll motivate them. Reducing supervision and allowing them to work autonomously gives them confidence and responsibility to oversee that they give effective results. This program is justified for it goes hand in hand with Herzberg’s two factor theory that of hygiene and motivational factors. Hygiene factors are those they contribute to dissatisfaction if they lack in the organization

World History since 1945 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

World History since 1945 - Essay Example The doctrine also promised to help Turkey and Greece economically and through military actions against the communists this after Britain announced that they would be withdrawing their support. These countries were to receive $400,000,000 aid. The doctrine contents were justified by the need to help free people in their fight against totalitarian rule which would undermine international peace, and as a result affect the state of security in the United States (Jones 36). The National Security Council Paper NSC-68 was a top secret report meant to confront the treat the hostile design of the Soviet Union had on the USA. The report banned the regeneration of US isolationism arguing that it will result in Soviet Union supremacy of Eurasia, and leave the USA stranded on the western hemisphere, away from its allies and assets need to push away Soviet infringement. Additionally, the report ruled out a deterrent strike against the Soviet Union since it will result in tit-for-tat action that would be devastating to Western Europe. The report also paved way for possible future negotiations with the Soviet Union. In its conclusion, the paper called for massive development of both conventional and nuclear arm in order to prevent the Soviet Union. However, this could only be achieved through increased taxes as well as the reduction of expenditure. The report was widely criticized with the critics arguing that USA already had a significant military edge over the Soviet Union. However, in June 1950 the recommendations were adopted as policy (Jones 72). When Mao took over the leadership of China in 1949, the country was witnessing a lot of problems. For instance, the country had fewer industries, unemployment levels were high, food shortages coupled with increased population. In 1949, 85 percent of chinas population were peasants. Mao

Asssignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Asssignment - Essay Example While the archaeologist focuses on the study of material objects to learn about human behavior, the ethnologist concentrates on the study of human behavior as it can be see, experienced and discussed with those whose culture is to be understood. Fundamental to Cintron’s approach is descriptive ethnography. Ethnography is the systematic description of culture based on firsthand observation. Whenever possible, the ethnologist becomes ethnographer by going to live among the people under study. He started the book by sharing a story regarding the collection baskets inside the church. (Page 1). A drunken man entered the house of God and made his way towards halfway to the altar while kneeling and uttering his prayers due to his remorseful state. The churchgoers were surprised with the scenario including the author himself. The commotion and somewhat disturbance of the ongoing religious gathering, the men who wielded the baskets picked up the drunken man and led him outside the church away from the churchgoers who politely and dutifully give donations thru the collection baskets. Aware of his experiences and knowledge, Cintron considers his book as the emptying of the basket (page 3). He stated that he had done his part of wielding the collection basket to people for him to gain insights and thoughts regarding their lives as well as the culture that they dwell in. This collection of reality was organized and documented by Cintron to be able to come up with a well-thought of book that will share the experiences of the people that he interacted with during the wielding of the basket. Cintron wanted to emphasize how ethos is bound up with logos. In other words, the rational argument does not necessarily persuade when reason is made pure. The pure kind of rationality does not exist outside the soup of human affairs. The author stated his Puerto Rican heritage. He was raised in Texas and his parents are both Puerto Ricans. His father was a

Nuclear Weapons and Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nuclear Weapons and Terrorism - Essay Example Although it may be the case that some terrorists (Or terrorist sympathizers) might be able to build an implosion assembly method (Using a plutonium core) or gun-type assembly method (Uranium tip) thermonuclear weapon from scratch, this approach would be unlikely. Firstly, it would be difficult to gather all of the raw nuclear materials and assemble them into a working weapon. Although it was postulated by Nuclear Control Institute (2011) that in theory terrorists could steal nuclear power plant fuel and convert that into a working nuclear weapon. However it is my belief that it is far more likely that the theft of completed nuclear weapon sub-components from various sources and then bring them together. The next major issue for consideration is the idea that a completed nuclear weapon could be stolen by terrorist groups. Although it may be the case that nations with nuclear weapons state that they have strict controls over the storage and transport it is the case that the Internation al Atomic Energy Commission only places physical security standards on international shipments of nuclear materials and not the internal transportation of these weapons. As such one could postulate that there may exist inadequate protection of several nations nuclear weapon arsenals.

Performance Management Seminar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Performance Management Seminar - Essay Example Discussion Introduction to the Concept of Performance Management Performance Management "Performance Management is an ongoing communication process" (Bacal, 1999, p.3). It is being executed through the participation of the employee and the immediate supervisor. Performance management has a benefit to both employees and management. For employees, it helps them determine the status of their present performance and further develop it to do better in the future. For the organization, it helps in boosting employee retention (Martin & Jackson, 2004, p.172). It is crucial to employ this concept to help the business grow at the same time allowing employees to develop and discover skills that will be helpful in achieving the organization's targeted goals. II. Discussion Component of Performance Management System Performance Planning Performance planning marks the beginning of the process of performance management. At this point, the manager explains to the employees what they will do in the o rganization, how it will be done, and the reason why that responsibility was given (Bacal, 1999, p.28). On Going Performance Communication It would we be inappropriate to assume that all things will be done smoothly after the performance planning phase. For the manager, it is necessary to consider the possibilities of encountering problems and so, for that reason, ongoing communication is extremely needed (Bacal, 1999, p.29). Performance Diagnosis and Coaching This is one very important component of performance management system. This gives the employees the chance of asking questions making it easy for the manager to remedy any problems that an employee is facing. This is so because employees are able to tell the manager all concerns or questions, thus giving the manager an idea of what measures are to be taken in order to solve or address these concerns (Bacal, 1999, p.36). III. Ice Breaker -Game- Charades - Six Participants divided into two groups -------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Second Part IV. Discussion Motivation, Performance Management, and Performance Management Theories: Interrelationships Frederic Taylor's scientific management theory aims to uncover "the best way of doing things" (Weightman, 2003, p.50). In relation to employee motivation, Taylor's theory emphasises the vitality of finding the most effective tool that will motivate employees to become motivated at work. Once employees are motivated, performance management will no longer be hard since employee performance is deemed excellent due to motivation. Another theory formulated in relation to motivation is Elton Mayo's Hawthorne effect. According to this theory, the level of employee’s motivation rises when additional attention is being given by management to their employees (Weightman, 2003,

Magnetization on Voltage Using Metals and Semiconductors Lab Report

Magnetization on Voltage Using Metals and Semiconductors - Lab Report Example Analysis and DiscussionThe findings ontained from the measurements of the results of the experiment reveals a number of aspects and properties of Hall effect. For example, the results suggest that hall voltage linearly varies as a function of the magnetic field of the current carrier material. On the other hand, it was also observed that the Hall effect is the generation of voltage in the conductor, induced by the presence of magnetic field (Baumgartner, 2006,p.165) .Variation of Voltage with DistanceThe plot shown in Figure No 5 indicates variation of voltage with varying distance on the tester rig. The original value of voltage is 0.24 (without any magnetic effect). It can be observed that the voltage are effected significantly when the magnet is sufficiently close. For a distance of 20mm, the voltage value is 0.1 V which means that voltage dropped to only 20% of the original value. However, as the distance was increased, the voltage quickly regained its original value and tends to stabilize at 0.24 v when the slider is moved away. Statistical Properties of dataIn order to examine the statistical properties of the data, the mean and standard deviation of the two set of data is calculated and is shown in Table No 2. From the data, it can be observed that the two sets are fairly close to each other and there is not big difference. For most the data, the two values are exactly the same. Therefore, the experimental setup provides very precise data.

Decentralisation & Country Essay Example for Free

Decentralisation Country Essay Decentralisation is one of the most popular and most proven ways to govern a country. In this respect the world practice knows many examples of decentralised countries where the social features and issues are likely to be solved more effectively owing to the dispersal of the state authority. The theme of decentralisation as the way to develop countries and lead them toward positive outcomes is recurring now. The paper suggests a scope of different important fields of state regulations which highlight the value of decentralisation. Insofar, the question is that this topic is based more on the examples of developing countries where the lack of constructive authority props up against the lack of follow up. It is meant here that the bottom-to-top approach is at stake, and it is a responsibility of a researcher to either prove the value of political and administrative (structural) decentralisation or not. Decentralisation is discussed in the paper through the evaluation of its impacts on public services in different Latin American countries and in some other countries of the world as well. Thereupon, a weighed position is determined in the research in order to constitute pros and cons of decentralisation supported by real facts gathered from peer-reviewed articles. Bringing to notice decades of developmental changes in different countries of the world, it is vital to state that decentralisation results in better development outcomes. Development planning is necessary for the strategy of further growth in a definite country. This is why it is no surprise that due to some sociological and political ideas stated by Marxists and, perhaps, constructivists long before most of the countries that accepted such ideals have reached out positive results in their overall performance. First of all, governmental reforms in turning the economy toward more reliance on the local governments are beyond disagreement. There are four types of decentralisation to be provided in a country: administrative (deconcentration and delegation), fiscal, political, and market decentralisation (Fritzen Lim, 2006). The discussion in the paper contemplates mostly the three of them, i. e. administrative, fiscal, and political. Administrative decentralisation is considered to be the most valued among a set of developing countries in terms of increasing the functionality and efficiency of public sector and enhancing capacity development as well (Furtado, 2001). This notion of strategic changes in the economies suffering from such negative effects as corruption and inapproachability of the central power at the local level is more than just significant. It goes without saying that the main prospects relied on while approaching decentralization of power in the developing countries are to reduce poverty and to improve public services. Such an influence on the development planning should be understood empirically based on the current world practice in this sector of political implementation. However, it may happen that the main aid from donor countries to developing countries comes down solely to supporting these countries materially. It is, of course, a possible solution, but it does not embrace the particularities of a country’s human and natural potential (resources). In this respect United Nations Development Program (UNDP) lays more emphasis on â€Å"the need to situate institutions and individuals within their appropriate systems and strategic management contexts† (Furtado, 2001, p. 3). Thus, a country’s capacity development should go hand in hand with the national perspectives for the current and the next fiscal year. To say more, both political and administrative decentralisation should take place in order to respond to local communities and officials. On the other hand, fiscal decentralisation should be taken into consideration. There is a direct link between political governance and local development as applied to the success of a fiscal decentralization. The report on such theme by UNDP (2005) presupposes the following: â€Å"A well-designed fiscal decentralization reform will fail (and the anticipated benefits and increased efficiency will fail to materialize) if the appropriate governance mechanisms are not in place for local accountability† (UNDP, 2005, p. 18). This is why it is vital to take a glance at concrete examples where political decentralisation is in evidence. Before responding to the examples of some countries, it is significant to highlight the main causes of poverty and inability of governments to solve this problem. First, it touches upon the educational development in the rural areas. Second, it contemplates the governmental investment into the most strategically important sectors of public (community) services. In this respect the remarkable examples of two Latin American countries, Bolivia and Colombia, take place. The four lessons which were taught on the example of both Bolivia and Colombia in their urge for decentralisation are as follows: 1. Local democracy must be free, fair, transparent and competitive; 2. Sub-national governments must face hard budget constraints; 3. Central government must be scaled back; 4. Significant tax-raising powers must be devolved to the periphery (Faguet, The Effects of Decentralisation on Public Investment: Evidence and Four Lessons from Bolivia and Colombia, 2005, p. 1). Bolivia was a very poor country after the revolution, and there was no concrete mechanism for governing the country. In this respect the administrative division into municipalities helped the officials take a look at how it was better to maintain a change. The racial attitudes toward indigenous population in the rural areas could not be solved pragmatically. Thus, the country was at the edge of strategic decision-making process coming from the highest echelons of power. The policy of decentralisation was an innovative breakthrough for Bolivia, but a highly centralised state with a weak national identity influenced by a diverse population blocked any attempts to grow rich (Faguet Sanchez, 2006). Due to the decentralisation in the governmental and administrative policies, the formerly neglected majority of municipalities took advantage of maintaining authority on the spot. In fact, Bolivia increased its benefits owing to making more politically weighed national public investment: â€Å"Before decentralization Bolivia’s three main cities took 86% of all devolved funds, while the remaining 308 municipalities divided amongst them a mere 14%. After decentralization the shares reversed to 27% and 73% respectively† (Faguet Sanchez, 2006, p. 9). That is the ostensive argument for stating the advantage of implementing decentralization policies in developing countries to stabilize the overall political and economical atmosphere inside the country. Decentralisation of education in Bolivia was possible due to the Popular Participation Law adopted in 1994, and which gave access for people living in municipalities to the basic education (Gropello, 1999). Colombia has its own history of making decentralisation the basic rule for the reformation of the state and administrative regulations at the local level up to the central bodies of state authority. Getting through a three-phase process of the national development, decentralisation in Colombia helped Colombians gain more verification of country’s fiscal funds and taxation, political instruments implementation, fiscal and administrative reforms based on the appropriate reference to the law and the Constitution among municipalities (Faguet Sanchez, 2006). It took few decades or so for Colombia to run the gamut of public services and take control of the periphery. Nonetheless, the process of decentralization provoked a wave of higher rates of enrolment to the educational establishments (Galiani Schargrodsky, 2001). Thus, there is a positive shift in the primary value of decentralization in supporting the national economy in terms of education. Decentralisation which took place in Bolivia proved its validity and feasibility in terms of not just using but distributing human resources across 311 municipalities (Faguet, Does decentralization increase government responsiveness to local needs? Evidence from Bolivia, 2004). In this respect one should be accurate in estimating the way of reforms in each among Latin American countries. Educational prospects were identified as a reaction on the implementation of a dispersal of the state initiatives in municipalities. Thus, when looking at this phenomenon logically, there is no wonder in assessing a positive effect of decentralisation. As it was mentioned before, decentralisation serves as the mechanism which gives population an access to public services. Providing a set of empirical and theoretical speculations on the case of Colombia, there is plenty to talk about. As a matter of fact, it is well known that the most needful public services for the population in any country and in Colombia, in particular, are health services and education. It was mentioned, however, that Colombian decentralisation fell into a holistic success in rates of enrolees willing to gain elementary or high education. By contrast, other studies have evidenced that financial support by local governments would gain more efficiency if local officials were more informed about the current extreme needs of communities in each among municipalities (Faguet Sanchez, DECENTRALIZATION AND ACCESS TO SOCIAL SERVICES IN COLOMBIA, 2009). In this respect the state power of Colombia was inclined to enlarge the share of budget financial resources increasing investment rates as opposed to running costs. The aforementioned approach as of Colombian local governments has been already imposed in Spain. In fact, this country suffered from its highly centralised political and administrative organization. The implications of decentralisation in Spain showed that the more autonomous communities isolated somehow from the influence of the central power gained more benefits in education and economic development as well (Pena, 2006). There were only two exceptions in the overall evaluation, but they make no difference in stating the positive effect of decentralisation as applied to educational improvements in Spain. The Spanish state power and its legislative branch, in particular, did a scope of renovations to legalize the authority of local communities in order to improve the educational standards as a result. One of the notions reckons with the constitutional norms which state the following definition of power dispersal in educational sphere: The Constitution keeps for the central government the definition of the structure of the educational system, the regulation of the requirements for obtaining, issue and standardization of academic degrees and professional qualifications and the establishment of basic rules to guarantee the unity of the Spanish educational system. The other educational competences, however, can be devolved to the regional governements (Pena, 2006, p. 8). Thus, there is no obstacle for Spanish communities related to specific administrative regions to provide educational policies which suit the preferences of the population at the localities. In turn it facilitates the overall process of decentralising the governmental approaches in the public sector with further improvements reflected on the progress level and enrolment rates. Once again, the case of Spain manifests positive outcomes of decentralisation as referred to the educational sector of public services. In Chile, education decentralisation invigorated the process of adjusting responsibilities between the central government and the local authorities (Parry, 1997). The balance had been achieved due to a constructive subordination and delegation of primary and secondary affairs relevant to each among the administrative units. However, the research gives grounds for stating the significance of the monitoring and financial support on the part of the central power, as a necessity which should be taken for granted (Parry, 1997). The question is that the case of Chile differs from that of Spain. Here the communities are not that independent autonomously from the central power. Thus, it is as if communities in Chile have to gain more devolution in order to sustain and improve public services at the periphery primordially established by the central power. Insofar, the concept of devolution is the central for measuring the tools for decentralisation. In other words, decentralisation relies on devolution. In Chile as well as in other developing countries there is a need for being more informed and educated. Talking about this theme, one should bear it in mind that contemporary humanity shares the main product of the post-industrial society, namely information. Chilean process of reformation was not that easy in driving education decentralisation to masses. There were detrimental consequences from the Pinochet’s regime. Nevertheless, as strange as it may seem, it is Pinochet who actively supported the implementation of decentralisation in education in 1980s, being even sympathetic to private education as an alternative for generally accepted public education (Parry, 1997). Further still, this dictator saw the value of inclusion of all among communities into the public life of the country when he called for â€Å"the need to decentralize responsibility, grant a greater degree of participation to the community, and to rationalize the use of public resources† (Cited in Parry, 1997, p. 214). Coming closer to 1990s Chile along with Bolivia Colombia, Argentina, and other Latin American countries joined the democratic incentives implied into the policy of decentralisation. Getting ahead in changing the state power from autocratic to democratic, Chile reaped the benefit of decentralisation, as schools in different municipalities became accessible and attractive to parents and students. The readings of growth in enrolment rates are as follows: â€Å"In 1990, the division of enrolment between private subsidized and public schools was 35. 86% for private and 64. 14% for public† (Parry, 1997, p. 217-218). That was a real breakthrough for the country. However, there are a number of researchers who admit problems after implementing decentralisation policies mostly among developing countries. It is quite fair to suppose that the decentralisation process is not linear or constant for countries where it serves as the main tool for reforms in public services. The main apprehensive is concerned with the fact that by decentralising the power at the local level there is a probability (and rather explicit, so to speak) of the emergence of corruption and inequity in sharing financial or human resources within communities. On the other side, problems of a political kind stimulate some aggravations in the process of democratically positive development in decentralised countries. All in all, a scope of negative consequences as a result of decentralisation counts for the following ones: â€Å"decentralizing corruption, increased inequalities between resource-rich and resource-poor regions, failure of the central government to successfully set and enforce minimum service standards in critical areas of national priority† (Fritzen Lim, 2006, p. 5). Along with such highly increased cases of negative execution of decentralization at local governments there is a threat to macroeconomic stability. It is all about the arrangement of and report on the expenditures and revenues in a definite municipality as referred to the central body of power (Fritzen Lim, 2006). This is why every bean has its black, as they say. In addition the central-to-local feedbacks can encounter â€Å"barriers† on the part of the elite circles in a definite municipality. It is another problem of decentralization dealing with a huge gap in stratification of the society: â€Å"However, decentralization can also degrade provision in the presence of positive spillovers, lack of technical capabilities by local governments, or capture of low-level administrators by local elites† (Galiani, Gertler, Schargrodsky, Helping the Good Get Better, but Leaving the Rest Behind: How Decentralization Affects School Performance, 2004). Thus, the educational prospects and problems along with fiscal and administrative features of decentralisation have been mentioned already. However, the focal point is that developing countries need more intrinsic governmental incentives in order to decrease the rates of poverty. This aspect of the discussion needs proper evaluation. To make it plain, decentralisation policies are largely considered with a decrease of negative impacts on the level of living in the society of a definite country. Poverty serves as an index of a country’s inability to shift the situation for better by means of appropriate reforms. In this respect it is fair to remark the increase of wages, giving more opportunities for farmers and croppers, etc. Crook and Sverrisson (1999) narrow down these initiatives to four main approaches for governments, namely: 1. Changes in the microeconomic features. There should be a substantial and felt support of the rural workers in what they can contribute into the country’s economy. 2. Social equity. Reducing the gap between different communities according to their history, ethnicity, and culture. 3. Human development. Increasing the rates of social comfortable circumstances by decreasing detrimental effects of poverty. 4. Spatial or inter-regional inequality. A rational distribution of the resources between economically more and less sufficient regions (Crook Sverrisson, 1999). However, even with some positive changes due to decentralisation, Bolivia is still suffering from poverty. UNDP keeps a strict eye on the human relationships and economical prospects for decreasing the poverty rates in Bolivia. Even with the highest tempos of capacity development, Bolivia needs another set of reforms to go the way of the developed countries of the world (UNDP, 2005). Thus, the democracy should make point of what has been done in Bolivia due to the timely constructive implementation of decentralization policies. The concept of planning development should serve as one of the basic approaches for maintaining social, economical, political, and fiscal equilibrium. Specialists from USAID as well as from UNDP work on dissecting new approaches to encourage the value of decentralization, as the way to cope with a genuinely democratic type of relationships between the central power and the periphery. The participation is necessary at all levels. Indeed, it is participation in different spheres of the state governance that makes planning development more efficient due to the cohesiveness of all branches. Notwithstanding the type of regime in a country, an extra-ordinary value of decentralization is beyond disagreement. USAID experts interpret decentralization as a necessary state of relationships â€Å"to increase the scope of decisions, and thus incentives, available to local participants, as well as to build institutions and to encourage, structure, focus, and stabilize such participation† (Rondinelli, 1981, p. 133). Nevertheless, based on the aforementioned examples of countries, decentralisation provides opportunities to step across new frontiers in planning development. Hence, it is about time to state that decentralization results in better development outcomes. Breaking the power down by means of its dispersal among municipalities gives more grounds for the central power to evaluate, make decisions, and verify the execution of the law, economic, and political prospects at the local level. Increasing governmental investment in public services served as an impulse for the growth of planning development in Bolivia, Colombia, Chile, and Spain as well. Decentralisation is widely practised in the world’s countries. Furthermore, its significance for maintaining stabilisation mechanisms in the developing countries cannot be underestimated. It is great that during some few decades many of the developing countries under the threat of dominated ideologies could change their course along with the policies of decentralisation as the paramount approach to start with. Humanity of the twenty-first century, therefore, has many points to acquire in social, economical, and political issues as pertaining to the policy of decentralisation. Reference Crook, R. C. , Sverrisson, A. S. (1999). TO WHAT EXTENT CAN DECENTRALISED FORMS OF GOVERNMENT ENHANCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF PRO-POOR POLICIES AND IMPROVE POVERTY-ALLEVIATION OUTCOMES? Unpublished manuscript , 1-61. Faguet, J. -P. (2004). Does decentralization increase government responsiveness to local needs? Evidence from Bolivia. Journal of Public Economics , 88, 867– 893. Faguet, J. -P. (2005). The Effects of Decentralisation on Public Investment: Evidence and Four Lessons from Bolivia and Colombia. Crisis States Program , 62, 1-21. Faguet, J. -P. , Sanchez, F. (2009, February 8). DECENTRALIZATION AND ACCESS TO SOCIAL SERVICES IN COLOMBIA. 1-35. Faguet, J. -P. , Sanchez, F. (2006). DECENTRALIZATION’S EFFECTS ON EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES IN BOLIVIA AND COLOMBIA. DEDPS , 47, 1-42. Fritzen, S. A. , Lim, P. W. (2006). LKY School of Public Policy. PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF DECENTRALIZATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (pp. 1-9). Singapore: National University of Singapore. Furtado, X. (2001). DECENTRALIZATION AND CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: UNDERSTANDING THE LINKS AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR PROGRAMMING. CIDA Policy Branch , 4, 1-11. Galiani, S. , Schargrodsky, E. (2001, September 19). Evaluating the Impact of School Decentralisation on Education Quality. JEL , 1-37. Galiani, S. , Gertler, P. , Schargrodsky, E. (2004, March 11). Helping the Good Get Better, but Leaving the Rest Behind: How Decentralization Affects School Performance. JEL , 1-34. Gropello, E. D. (1999). Educational decentralization models in Latin America. Cepal Review , 68, 155-173. Parry, T. R. (1997). Achieving Balance in Decentralization: A Case Study of Education Decentralization in Chile. World Development , 25 (2), 21 l-225,. Pena, P. S. (2006). Evaluation of the ejffects of decentralization on educational outcomes in Spain. JEL , 1-32. Rondinelli, D. A. (1981). Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and Practice in Developing Countries. International Review of Administrative Sciences , 2, 133-145. UNDP. (2005). United Nations Development Programme. Fiscal Decentralization in Transition Economies: Case Studies from the Balkans and Caucasus (pp. 1-194). Bratislava: UNDP Publishings. UNDP. (2005). United Nations Development Programme: Oslo Governance Centre. Democratic decentralization and poverty reduction: Bolivian case (pp. 3-46). Oslo: UNDP.

Virtue Ethics Essay Example for Free

Virtue Ethics Essay Virtue ethics is a moral philosophy that encompasses morality, defined by values which are identified and classified by a range of character traits. Aristotle is the founding father of most virtue ethics theories, while some versions have incorporated Plato, Kant and Hume their contributions to the theory of virtue ethics is less emphasized (Athanassouulis, 2006). Virtue theory is often thought of as a dynamic theory of how to conduct business activities (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 157). Virtues are acquired character traits that help people fit into society. Acquiring virtuous qualities is necessary to achieve success. According to Grenz Smith (2003): Virtue ethics is defined as an, inner disposition to perform morally right acts of a certain kind; the tendency to act rightly by habit in a particular manner; a character trait that is deemed morally praiseworthy. The virtues have also been understood to be those qualities of character that make a person morally successful. Ethicists in both the Greek and Christian moral traditions have sought to determine what traits are virtues. Recent years have witnessed a renewed interest in virtues, especially with the renaissance in virtue ethics or the ethic of being (p. 125). Other definitions of virtue ethics have been described as positive traits which promote health, harmony, and balance (Engel, 2000). A virtue is an acquired quality of character that allows one to achieve personal happiness. Velasquez, Shanks, Andre and Meyer (1988) illustrated that a person that has developed the virtue of generosity is often referred to as a generous person because he or she tends to be generous in all circumstances (no page). Velasquez, Shanks, Andre, and Meyer’s interpretation of virtue ethics reinforces Aristotle’s earlier theory that once virtuosity is acquired it is maintained by repetition (1988, no page). People are by nature creatures of habit. Therefore, in order to become virtuous it is necessary to repeat virtuous acts so those acts become habits. The opposite of virtues are vices, which are negative traits that detract from health, harmony and balance. According to Engel (2000) a â€Å"vice is an unbalanced virtue which needs to be brought back to center† (no page). A vice can either be a lack of effort or an act of self indulgence. Vices are caused by impulses which are not regulated by virtues and many times the individual is unaware of their emotions (Engel, 2000, no page). Virtues and vices must work together and balance out. On a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being extreme, a person who values the virtue of honesty and vows to always tell the truth no matter the circumstance or situation lacks harmony and balance. Honesty can be taken to an extreme 10 whereby one says everything from one’s mind without any consideration or using tact (Engel, 2000, no page). On the other hand one can be an extreme 1 where the individual does not ever tell the truth. It is important to understand that being an extreme 1 or 10 on any virtuous scale is not a good thing. Aristotle is the father of virtue ethics theories; he studied ethics in a broad sense. He defined virtues of character as dispositions to act in certain ways in response to similar situations (Engel, 2000, no page). Based on Aristotle’s Nicomachean Ethics, things of any variety have a characteristic function that they are properly used to perform (Kemerling, 1997). The good for human beings must involve the entire proper function of human life as a whole (Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, 350 B. C. ). Aristotle also gave consideration to the aspects of human nature involved in acting and accepting moral responsibility. Aristotle’s philosophy of virtue ethics emphasizes that acting virtuous is a habit not an act. â€Å"We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit† (Landauer Rowlands, 2001). For example, individuals that consistently practice the virtue of being fair will continuously expound their knowledge of fairness in every aspect of life. Blackburn (2001) pointed out that Aristotle emphasized becoming virtuous requires education and practice (p. 113). Moral character must be taught and instilled gradually. Aristotle’s theory of virtue applies accordingly to today’s business activities by implying to be virtuous requires extreme repetition, dedication and understanding of morality. Morality is a major component of virtue ethics. Grenz Smith defined morality as, â€Å"Determining what is believed to be right and good, then living out those beliefs† (2003, p. 77). The word ethics has often been used as a synonym for morality (Frankena, 1980, p. 3). According to Frankena, conceptual thinking and analysis seek to clarify moral concepts like virtue to elucidate the logic of moral reasoning (1980, p.4). Morality has been referred to as an action guide or standard of conduct. What Makes Us Moral? Authored by Levy (2004) described â€Å"morality as a system of prescriptions that are held to be conditionally binding upon all rational agents† (p. 41). Most often morality is deemed as a type of character formation which determines how people should act and shape their lives (Frankena, 1980, p19). Essentially morality has been linked synonymously with moral judgment. Hollinger referred to moral judgment as a behavior in which people have a sense of oughtness and obligation (2002, p. 13). Moral judgment involves those decisions in particular situations where one choice may be better or worse than another. According to Cothran (2006), determining what is moral or immoral comes from either the understanding of new information or the application of information (p. 34). It is out of a sense of obligation, and knowing right from wrong that has caused people to debate the morality of an issue. Halberstam (1993) proposed that there are three basic confusions about moral judgment (p. 146). First, morality is not a matter of taste. Second, moral judgments are not social judgments. Lastly, being moral does not equate to acting legally. How people choose to deal with issues tells the world who they are. How do you make a moral decision? You can flip a coin. You can roll dice. Usually people go with their gut instincts. Moral reflection is essentially self actualization which compels people to analyze their decisions. Typically people debate about social issues such as abortion, euthanasia, and everyday personal concerns. These issues are moral judgments not a matter of taste or preference. Americans have enacted laws based on moral concerns not matters of taste. Moral issues are routinely taken to Congress in order to enact laws concerning American citizens. Halberstam (1993) stated, â€Å"If moral views were arbitrary inclinations, we wouldn’t bother trying to get others to see our way† (p. 147). Many people confuse moral judgments with social judgments. Halberstam (1993) researched Southeast Asians cuisine and found many Asians consider monkey brains to be a delicacy (p. 148). Asians frequently dine on monkey brains, which most Americans would find repulsive. However, consumption of monkey brains is no more a moral repulsion than consumption of fried chickens. The issue of whether or not to dine on monkey brains would usually be considered a social judgment not a moral judgment (Halberstam, 1993, p. 148). However, if a particular culture worshiped monkeys then the issue could be considered a moral judgment. Moral judgments, unlike matters of taste are supported by reason (Halberstam, 2003, p. 147). People are allowed to prefer a certain food over another, the same as they are allowed to prefer wearing clothes made by a particular designer over another. An example of moral judgment would be presented if a designer employed children in sweatshops to make his or her clothes. The buyer would then have the burden of deciding whether it is morally correct to continue to purchase the designer’s clothing. The buyer’s decision would be based on his or her moral beliefs. Moral beliefs are inner beliefs that ultimately guide outward actions. Morality isn’t a matter of personal taste or social standards. It really isn’t a matter of the law, either. Morality and the law are often connected. Fried (1978) pointed out in Right and Wrong, â€Å"Rights are to be used, and there are moral judgments to be made, judgments of the good and bad, better and worse, regarding the enjoyment of these rights† (p. 171). For example some comedians tell sexist and ethnic jokes. Legally the comedian has a right to free speech, however those jokes may be considered morally offensive. In most societies people want the law to reflect morality, but there is a fine line between the two. Lying is morally wrong, but unless you lie on a witness stand it’s not illegal (Halbestam, 2003, p. 151). Therefore most people haven chosen not to make being a liar an illegal act; only to question the morality and character of people that lie. Cohen (2002) stated, â€Å"Most of the world’s misery can be traced back to a lack of virtue† (p. 21). The main virtues that support business transactions are: integrity, honesty, trust, fairness, and moral leadership (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 157). Lack of any of the previously mentioned virtues can severely hinder and harm a business. According to Lewis (1991) in A Question of Vales: Six Ways We Make The Personal Choices That Shape Our Lives, virtuosity has been closely linked to emotion, â€Å"Although we do not usually associate feeling with thinking or judging we actually judge through our emotions all the time† (p. 10). Being honest and truthful has been found to be the most emotionally challenged and judged virtue. Integrity incorporates a broad range of ethical characteristics. Plante (2004) defined integrity as â€Å"following high standards of honesty, justice, and fairness; having completeness or wholeness† (p. 40). You could say that to maintain integrity is to avoid situations that violate your sense of completeness or wholeness. Here’s an example to illustrate the principle of integrity. You are a lawyer with a firm and you are propositioned by a client to do legal work outside of the firm. You feel this opportunity may help you advance in your career. Also the likelihood of anyone finding out about this business transaction is unlikely. If you were a person of integrity what would you do? I you value the virtue of integrity you would likely decline the offer, due to your loyalty and commitment to the firm. Individuals that value integrity usually value honesty as well. On the other hand individuals that have not fully developed their sense of virtue emotionally agonize between being truthful and being dishonest. Grenz Smith (2003) defined honesty as â€Å"being devoted to the truth and truthfulness: (p. 53). As a virtue honesty gives rise both to pursing the truth and being truthful (Grenz Smith, 2003, p.54). Even in difficult situations a truly virtuous person will always be honest. Trust is a virtue defined as a â€Å"predisposition to place confidence in the behavior of others while taking the risk that the expected behavior will not be performed â€Å"(Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 158). Businesses that posse the virtue of trust eliminate the need for excessive monitoring and precise contracts and agreements (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 158). Businesses that have complete trust convey reliability and integrity to their consumers and counterparts. Fairness is a virtue that focuses on the disposition to deal equitably with the perceived injustices of others (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 158). According to Grenz Smith (2003) fairness is a principle of justice that asserts that all persons in a particular group ought contribute to and share in the benefits that accrue to the group in a manner that is equitable when measured according to an assumed or agreed standard. Fairness often relates to doing the right thing in any given situation. In sales and marketing environments associates often have collective team and individual objectives or sales goals to meet monthly. In order to make the sales objectives fair, upper management assess multiple components, such as the number of sales associates on a team and the amount of sales experience of each individual. It would be unfair for an associate with one month of experience to have the same goals as an associate with one year of service. It would also be unfair for a team of 6 members to have the same sales goals as a team with 10 members. The team would be at a disadvantage either by lack of experience or the number of sales agents. Moral leadership is a virtue that encompasses strength of character, peace of mind heart, and happiness in life. Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell (2008) have found â€Å"moral leadership to be a character trait of leaders who follow a consistent pattern of behavior based on virtues† (p. 158). A person that posses moral leadership will always rely on their virtues to guide them. Such an individual will remain consistent in the method in which they conduct business. Virtues are often called character traits. Character is defined as the various dimensions of personality either natural or acquired that distinguish one individual from another (Grenz Smith, 2003, p. 18). As an ethical term character refers to the traits of an individual that may be deemed morally blameworthy or praiseworthy. Character traits are usually used in a positive sense to refer to the possession of virtues. Individuals that posses character traits are considered to be as morally upright. Gier (2006) found virtue ethics to be internal and self regulating, thereby sustaining character traits as internal and self-regulating measures of standards (no page). It is important to understand that moral character develops over a period of time. People are born with all kinds of natural tendencies. Some of the tendencies will be positive such as kindness and some of the tendencies will be negative such as jealousy (Athanassoulis, 2006, no page). Natural tendencies can be encouraged and discouraged by leadership such as parent’s teachers and peers. Character development is shaped and molded through a long gradual process of moral education and habitation (Athanassoulis, 2006, no page). Moral education and development are a major part of virtue ethics. Cline suggested in Virtue Ethics: Morality and Character, that a person ask themselves four key questions: What sort of person do I want to be?; What virtues are characteristics of the person I want to be? ; What actions will cultivate the virtues I want to possess? : What actions will be characteristics of the sort of person I want to be? (n. d. , no page). Virtuous actions stem from some particular motivation, which implies correct moral decisions require correct moral motives. Greene (1994) pointed out Benjamin Franklin’s stance on the virtue of resolve in Ben’s Book of Virtues which stated, resolutions were meant to be kept and held sacred by resolving to do what you ought (p. 8). In other words, do without fail what you resolve to do (Greene, 1994, p. 8). Resolutions are usually inner promises people make to themselves to do or follow certain plans of action. Following through with resolutions builds trust and respect in the business world. Companies that fail to honor their resolutions become weak and undesirable to their colleagues and stakeholders. There can be a different set of virtues for almost every aspect of life, such as marriage, religion, and business. For example, with regards to marriage the virtues are trust, respect, love and fidelity. Many Christian’s hold their religious virtues as compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness, patience, and above all love (Col 3:12). Most businesses set of virtues are trust, self-control, empathy, fairness, truthfulness, learning, gratitude, civility, and moral leadership (Ferrell, Fraedrich Ferrell, 2008, p. 158). Virtue ethics is a moral philosophy that has been proven to focus on one’s internal disposition of values and beliefs. According to Aristotle, virtues are developed through moral education which instills positive character traits by repetitive practicing of virtuous habits. Virtuous people posses balance and harmony between their virtues and vices. In conclusion virtue ethics is a dynamic theory of how to conduct business activities and ultimately life activities. Reference List Aristotle. c. 350 B. C. (1985). Nicomachean Ethics. Trans by Terence Irwin. Indianapolis. IN: Hackett. Athanassoulis, Nafsika. (2006). Virtue ethics. In The Internet Encyclopedia ofPhilosophy online. Retrieved July 26, 2008 from http://www. utm. edu/research/iep/v/virtue. htm Blackburn, Simon. (2001). Being good: A short introduction to ethics. New York, NewYork: Oxford University Press Inc. Cline, Austin. (n. d. ). Virtue ethics: Morality and character. Retrieved June 30, 2008,from http://atheism. about. com/od/ethicalsystems/a/virtueethics. htm Cohen, Randy. (2002). The good the bad the difference: How to tell right fromwrongin everyday situations. New York, NY: Doubleday. Cothran, Helen. (Eds) (2006). Ethics: Opposing viewpoints. Farmington Hills, MI:Greenhaven Press. Engel, Dawn. (2000). Virtues and vices. Retrieved July 26, 2008 fromhttp://www. philosophypages. com/hy/2s. htm Frankena, William. (1980). Thinking about morality. Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press. Ferrell, O. C. , Fraedrich, John, Ferrell, Linda. (2008). Individual factors: moralphilosophies and values. In, Business ethics: Ethical decision making and cases(7th ed. ). (P. 156-158) Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Fried, Charles. (1978). Right and wrong. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Gier, Nicholas f. (2006). Virtue ethics and character consequentialism. Retrieved fromhttp://www. class. uidaho. edu/ngier/introVE. htm Greene, Karen. (Eds) (1994). Ben’s book of virtues: Ben Franklin’s simple weekly planfor success and happiness. New Hope, PA: New Hope Press. Grenz, Stanley J. Smith, Jay T. (2003). Pocket dictionary of ethics: Over 300 terms ideas clearly defined. Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press. Halberstam, Joshua. (1993). Everyday ethics: Inspired solutions real -life dilemmas. New York, NY: Penguin Group. Hollinger, Dennis P. (2002) Choosing the good. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic. Kemerling, Garth. Aristotle: Ethics and the virtues. (1997). Retrieved July 28, 2008 from http://www. philosophypages. com/hy/2s. htm Landauer, Jeff Rowlands, Joseph. (2001). Virtue. Retrieved June 30, 2008 fromhttp://wwww. importanceofphilosophy. com/Ethics_Virtue.html Levy, Neil. (2004). What makes us moral? Crossing the boundaries of biology. Oxford,England: Oneworld Publications Lewis, Hunter. (1991). A question of values: Six ways we make the personal choicesthat shape our lives. New York, NY: HarperCollins Publishers. Plante, Thomas G. PH. D. , ABPP. (2004). Do the right thing: Living ethically in anunethical world. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications Inc. Velasquez, Manuel Andre, Claire Shanks, Thomas Meyer, Michael. (1988). Ethics and virtue. Retrieved fromhttp://www. scu. edu/ethics/practicing/decision/ethicsandvirtue. html.

Child labour in the global economy

Child labour in the global economy This report proposes to examine the key effects, elements and issues surrounding child labour in relation to the global economy. Through their thorough and convincing research, the authors, Eric .V.Edmonds and Nina Pavcnik (2005) estimate the number of economically active children between the ages of 5-14 years and claim that parental poverty is its main cause. However, they are hesitant to endorse the widely held belief that international policies are the solution to this global crisis; rather they suggest more domestic measures to limit it, such as affordable education and more job stimulation. They also argue that contrary to popular perception most working children engage in domestic/market work rather than in manufacturing establishments. Introduction The term Child Labour is a widespread phenomenon often equated to child abuse. In Erics footnote on What is Child Labour? He states the International Labour Organisations (ILO) definition of child labour which is defines an economically active child as a child labourer if she is under 12 and economically active for one or more hours per week, 12-14 and working more than 14hours per week or one or more hours per week in activities that are hazardous by nature or circumstance and if she is 15-17 and works in unconditional work forms of child labour (trafficked children, children in bondage or forced labour, armed conflict, prostitution, pornography, illicit activities)(ILO 2002, cited in Edmonds and Pavcnik 2005; pp.200). Edmonds asserts however that these forms of child labour are rare. He insists stating that children engage in activities which could either be harmful or beneficial depending on the type of activity and also the impact on the child should depend on what the child would be doing if not working (the childs alternative foregone). Household Survey evidence by the ILOs Statistical information and monitoring program on child labour (SIMPOC) also defines child labour as A child is defined as economically active if he or she works for wages (cash or in-kind); works in the family farm in the production and processing of primary products; works in family enterprises that are making primary products for the market, barter or own consumption; or is unemployed and looking for these types of work (ILO 2002,cited in Edmonds and Pavcnik 2005; pp.201). This is a more practical definition taking into account that most children work at home for their families; either on the farm or domestically. The rare hazardous forms of labour stated in the ILOs definition are difficult to make out in household surveys which the SIMPOC are based on thus specialized surveys are conducted by the ILO and other concerned organizations. As a result of these surveys, the ILOs SIMPOC (2002) estimates 8.4 million children engage in unconditional work forms of child labour and of these, 68 percent are in bonded or forced labour (forms of slavery). According to Edmond and Pavncik most child labourers are employed by their parents to work on the farm or domestically which goes against the widely held view that children work mainly in manufacturing establishments and other forms of employment. They argue that children also face risks in the simplest forms of labour as they get older, for example agriculture, due to exposure to toxic chemicals, harsh weather conditions, animals/parasites. Ashagrie (1997) agrees with this point stating that the self reported injury rate from child labour surveys of chi ldren working in agriculture is actually higher at 2 percent than the 9 percent level reported in manufacturing. (Ashagrie 1997 cited in Edmonds and Pavcnik 2005; pp.208) Edmonds and Pavnciks article posits an open research question as to whether the reasons children engage in these hazardous working conditions differs from the driving force of children working on their family businesses or domestic work. Literature review. Child labour in the global economy is estimated at 211million, ILO (2002), which accounts for 18 % of children, aged 5-14 worldwide. Of these, 60 % are in Asia and 23 % in sub Saharan Africa. Although Asia has a greater percentage of child labours Africa has a higher participation rate estimated at 30%. SIMPOC also estimates that 4 % of children work in transition economies (i.e. countries undergoing economic liberalization) and 2% in developed countries. The United Nations childrens educational fund (UNICEF) conducted three surveys in thirty-six less developed countries in 2000 and 2001 providing information on the participation rates in both domestic and market work for 124 million children. The first survey helps buttress Edmond and Pavcniks point on child workers engaging mainly in domestic/ market work rather than manufacturing establishments. Participation rates in various activities for 124million children 5-14 from 36 countries in 2000. All children 5-14 Age 5-9 10-14 Gender Male Female Location Urban Rural Market work (MAR) 25.0 15.3 35.2 26.6 23.3 18.9 30.5 Paid 2.4 1.0 4.0 2.8 2.0 2.2 2.5 unpaid 5.8 4.4 7.3 5.6 5.9 4.0 7.3 family 20.8 12.4 29.7 22.4 19.1 14.8 26.2 Domestic work (DOM) 64.6 50.8 79.2 59.3 69.9 60.7 67.4 Any work (MAR + DOM) 68.4 53.5 84.3 64.8 72.1 64.1 71.7 20 or more hours per week 20.7 10.3 31.8 19.4 22.1 14.1 26.4 40 or more hours per week 6.4 2.7 10.3 6.1 6.7 3.6 8.8 UNICEF End of Decade Assessment microdata, (2000). See Edmonds and Pavcnik (2005, JEP). From the table above it is evident that less than 3% of children work outside the household for pay and this is mainly the case in rural settlements rather than urban where manufacturing activities are dominant. Approximately 6% participate in unpaid work. Edmonds and Pavcnik interpret these unpaid children as those children who help their neighbours in the farm or business or could also be children receiving in-kind payments (food) as well as children who are indebted to their employees by their parents. However in contrast to this, 20.8% of children work in family businesses and of this figure, 26.2% are in rural areas and 14.8% in urban. The authors further research shows that there is an agreement with this UNICEF survey from other available data from countries like Nepal, South Africa, Vietnam, India as well as Bangladesh where child labour in its garment industry also had a figure of 1.2% unpaid children age 5-14 as cited in a 2002 child labour survey. According to the table ap proximately 65% of children work domestically and 68% work in both market and domestic work. There is a high participation rate pattern by older female children age 10-14 in rural areas. The table also shows that they tend to work longer hours than males. This is probably due to cultural domestic values. Agriculture takes the largest part of the employment sector in countries (e.g. Kenya 77% In 1998, Guatemala 63 %in 2000, Ethiopia 89% in 2001 etc) followed closely by domestic work and then manufacturing which is only a percentage of economically active children. Figures from the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) 2004 (FOA 2004 cited in Edmonds and Pavcnik 2005)match with this indicating that most adults work in agriculture and since most children work with their parents they also work in agriculture. There is a trade off between work and school for child labourers. Most working children attend school and the UNICEF estimates in its second survey the total hours of work in relation to different types of work as well as school attendance. The data shows that on average, children spend 26 hours on market work weekly. Children that work for their families and are unpaid spend 27hours weekly. Paid employment takes up more hours in a week and by older children. Children that take part in domestic work spend 16 hours per week .Edmonds and Pavcnik further stated that these figures should not imply that domestic work is insignificant because on average, majority of the hours spent on market work is indeed domestic work. However children that attend school spend less hours working than those who do not attend school. The third survey below by the UNICEF reports the school attendance of children aged 5-14. From the table we observe that approximately 70% of children in that age range attend school and this attendance is mainly in favour of older male boys, in urban areas. School attendance conditional on work status accounts for 74%. There is a 14% likelihood that children who do not work do not attend school but this is reflected mainly in younger children. Less than 5 % of the 30% of children that do not attend school work in market work only and we see that domestic work is more popular in this case as 32% of the 30% participate in it alone. Thus Edmonds states that in ignoring this figure of domestic work researchers would lose out on one of the segments of children not attending school. A large fraction of children, 42%, well known as idle attend neither school nor work Work and schooling status for 124million children 5-14 from 36 countries in 2000 All children 5-14 Age 5-9 10-14 Gender Male female Location Urban rural Attend school 69.5 58.9 80.8 70.768.3 75.1 63.9 Attendance rates conditional Any work Not work 73.9 60.0 64.1 80.6 52.9 82.2 75.7 72.3 61.6 57.8 80.1 68.3 64.9 52.8 Conditional on nonattendance Domestic only Market only 32.0 4.5 30.8 34.9 2.8 8.3 27.1 36.6 6.3 2.7 31.8 32.0 4.9 4.3 Both market and domestic Not work 22.0 41.5 13.1 42.2 53.3 14.6 20.3 23.5 46.2 37.1 12.8 26.6 50.6 37.1 UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey End of Decade Assessment microdata.(2002) Child labourers face consequences on schooling attainment because time spent working gives less time for extracurricular activities and might weaken their school performance. Orazem and Gunnarsson (2004) find that third and fourth graders who attend school but never work in market or domestic work perform 28 % better on mathematics tests and 19% better on language tests than children who attend school and work. Empirical evidence of this is given in an example by Beegle, Dehejia and Gatti (2004) wherein after five years of working and schooling they examined the status of young adults in Vietnam. They observed that a one standard deviation increase in the hours worked by children attending school is equated to a 35% decrease in educational attainment. Edmonds and Pavcnik however are of the school of thought that this negative correlation between working and grade advancement might reflect that low performing students engage in work rather than that work generates low-performing stude nts. Parents send their children to work not by choice but as a result of economic necessity thus Child labour is caused fundamentally by poverty and as far back as data show, there have been several policies proposed with the aim of fighting against child labour worldwide. Have these legislative acts helped solve the problem of child labour? To answer this question Edmonds and Pavncik give two examples, firstly the US Congress enacted laws prohibiting the importation of goods made by children and as a result of these sanctions, Bangladesh was said to have released over 10,000 paid child workers below the age of 14 from its garment industry in the mid 1900s. Evidently this is not drastic as the figures are a tenth of the percentage of child workers in Bangladesh. Furthermore Moehling (1999) finds little evidence that minimum wage laws in manufacturing sectors put into practice between the years 1880 and 1910 contributed to the decline in child labour during this period. In addition, the a uthors state that more recent studies show that the US House of Representatives have discussed the Child labour elimination act which would enforce punitive measures, alter financial support, and order US oppositions from multilateral development banks to 62 developing countries affected by child labour. Edmonds and Pavcnik argue that although these policies might help reduce child labour, they are not guaranteed to be successful in less developed nations where they are targeted at for these reasons enumerated in their article: Lack of available resources to implement policies (i.e. bans) mainly in cases where the children engage in market work for their parents wherein the end product contributes to the family income. Child labour policies are seen as a case of multiple equilibrium, Basu and Van (1998), whereby children that work at low wages are at one equilibrium and increased adult wages when children do not work are at another therefore defeating the purpose of the ban. Moreover according to Basus example (2003), if firms are fined for child labour, the cost of the fine increases the demand for cheap child labour as opposed to high earning adult workers in order to make more profit to offset the fine which in turn makes child labour necessary. Children that are prohibited from working legitimately might move into more hazardous forms of child labour or non exporting sectors of the economy such as prostitution however there is no scientific evidence of this. Since Poverty is the main cause of child labor it would be logical to combat child labor by A) Improving the standard of living of families i.e. increasing adult income which in turn does the following Diminishes the marginal utility of income which decreases the value of marginal contribution because as more income comes into the family form parents it eliminates the satisfaction derived from the income contribution of the child. Brings about the purchase of alternatives used in place of child labour (e.g. washing machines) Increases a childs productive level in schooling (human capital) because the family is now able to afford necessary materials (e.g. textbooks) B) Encouraging credit markets to give loans to poor households is another suggestive method because child labor has been said to be a result of credit market imperfections. Baland and Robinson 2000; Ranjan, 2001 agree with this stating Several theoretical studies emphasize that if credit markets allowed households to borrow against future earnings child labor could be much reduced C) Providing affordable education because parents would be willing to contribute to improve their childrens long run chances yet, are however left with no choice but to send their children to work due to the perceived returns to schooling. Policies have been adopted to reduce chid labour through educational subsidies. An example of such is the Progresa program in Mexico which is predominately used in many countries worldwide. It gives parents an incentive to keep their child in school. Parents are paid if the school certifies that the child has been attending school regularly. Thus it is a demand approach aimed at reducing the cost of schooling, which varies with age of the child, and increasing family income. Conclusively relying on laws and their enforcement as discussed previously, is a necessary but unsatisfactory solution to child labour. Overall, economic development interventions relevant to the underlying cause are more effective policy tools to reduce the incidence of child labour.